10.1 // Building a National Identity

The Era of Good Feelings - With the end of the War of 1812, the Republicans took firm control of the government. The presidential election of 1816 resulted in a landslide victory for Republican candidate James Monroe of Virginia. He defeated Rufus King, the Federalist candidate, by 183 to 34 electoral votes. Stung by this defeat, the Federalist Party began to lose power. Within a few years, the party had disappeared. President Monroe wanted to promote national unity. In the spring and summer of 1817, he made a goodwill circuit of the middle and northern sections of the country. He was warmly greeted in Connecticut and Massachusetts, the only states that had not voted for him in 1816. The old arguments over the War of 1812 seemed to have faded away. While Monroe was in Boston, a local newspaper described the new sense of national unity as the “Era of Good Feelings.” The name stuck and was used to describe Monroe’s two terms in office. When he ran for reelection in 1820, no candidate opposed him. -

Building the National Economy - After 1815, many Americans believed the federal government should take action to increase economic prosperity in all regions of the country. Even the Republicans began to see merit in certain federal programs. This was a change, because in previous years Republicans had been known for stressing states’ rights. Support for federal measures to promote economic prosperity came from many regions. These beliefs were expressed by a number of bright young members of Congress from different regions. Outstanding among those who favored federal action were Henry Clay of Kentucky, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, and Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. • Clay spoke for people in the West who thought the country needed better roads and canals to transport goods from one region to another. • Calhoun spoke for the interests of the South. While first a defender of national unity, he later put more emphasis on the idea of states’ rights. • Webster became a spokesperson for the Northeast. At first, he opposed high tariffs, but he later came to support them as a way of protecting industry.-

The Second Bank of the United States - Congress passed a law in 1791 creating the first Bank of the United States. In 1811, the Bank ceased to exist. Its charter—a legal document giving certain rights to a person or company—had run out. Without the Bank, the economy suffered. State banks made too many loans and issued too much money. This caused an increase in spending and led to rising prices. To cure these problems, Congress established the second Bank of the United States in 1816. Like the first Bank, the new Bank was privately owned and had a charter to operate for twenty years. It lent money to individuals and controlled the money supply. This gave a boost to American businesses

The Tariff of 1816 - Another problem the nation faced after the War of 1812 was foreign competition. Most British goods had been kept out of the United States by the Embargo Act and the War of 1812. This helped American industry grow rapidly. New American factories made textiles, smelted iron, and produced many other products. After the War of 1812, British manufacturers looked to sell their goods in the United States. They could still produce goods more cheaply than the Americans because they had well-established factories and more customers. This gave the British an opportunity to drive their American competitors out of business by dumping their goods in the United States. Dumping is selling goods in another country below market prices.

The Tariff of 1816 (continued) - British dumping caused dozens of New England businesses to fail. As their investments collapsed, angry factory owners turned to Congress for help. They demanded protective tariffs to raise the price of foreign goods. Congress responded with the Tariff of 1816, which put a tax on foreign textiles, iron, leather goods, paper, and other products. In 1818 and 1824, Congress passed even higher tariffs. These tariffs were popular in the North, where most factories were located. However, the tariffs were deeply resented in the South, where they forced southerners to pay more for their goods. John C. Calhoun became a bitter foe of tariffs. He argued that they made northern manufacturers rich at the expense of the South.

Clay’s American System - As the debate over tariffs raged, Henry Clay came up with a plan that he believed would help the economy of each section of the country. He called his plan the American System. It proposed high tariffs and a federal program of public works. Clay believed that high tariffs helped all regions of the country, not just the North. According to Clay, the wealth produced by tariffs would enable northerners to buy farm products from the West and the South. The tariff also would provide revenue for the federal government. The government could then use the money to build up the infrastructure—roads, bridges, and canals—in the South and West. Clay’s American System never fully became government policy. Presidents Madison and Monroe both refused to support some of Clay’s projects. Also, southerners continued to oppose protective tariffs. They were not convinced by Clay’s argument that high tariffs would aid the South in the long run.

Three Important Supreme Court Rulings - The Supreme Court also promoted national economic growth and the power of the federal government during this era. Led by Chief Justice John Marshall, a Federalist sympathizer, the Court issued a series of important rulings between 1819 and 1824. In McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), the Court protected the second Bank of the United States. The case grew out of an attempt by the state of Maryland to put a tax on the branch of the Bank operating in that state. The Bank refused to pay the tax. The Court’s 1819 decision, written by Marshall, strengthened the power of the federal government. It ruled that states had no power to interfere with federal institutions. A tax, said the Court, was a dangerous interference because “the power to tax involves the power to destroy.” Moreover, according to Marshall, a state cannot pass any law that violates a federal law. This reasoning would be used in future years to expand the power of the federal government.

Three Important Supreme Court Rulings (continued) -Two other decisions helped shape American life. In Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), the Court ruled that the charter of Dartmouth College in New Hampshire was a private contract. A contract is an agreement between two or more parties that can be enforced by law. Since the Constitution protected private contracts, New Hampshire could not change Dartmouth’s charter. In protecting private contracts, the Court was protecting private businesses. In doing that, it helped promote capitalism—the economic system in which privately owned businesses compete in a free market. In Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), the Court again supported federal power. It ruled that New York State could not give a steamboat company a monopoly to carry passengers on the Hudson River. The Court pointed out that travel on the Hudson River included stops in New Jersey as well as New York. Therefore, it was interstate commerce—trade between two or more states. Under the Constitution, only Congress can regulate interstate commerce. Again, the Court had strengthened the federal government at the expense of the states.

10.2 // Dealing with Other Nations

Relations With Spain - At the time of the War of 1812, the United States and Haiti were the only parts of the Americas not under European control. Spain controlled more territory in the Americas than any other European country. However, Spain’s power had steadily weakened over several hundred years. Spain’s control was especially weak in Florida. Spain could not stop enslaved African Americans who escaped from plantations in Georgia and Alabama from crossing into Florida. Once in Florida, many of the escapees joined the Seminole Nation. The Seminoles often crossed into the United States to raid American settlements. In 1817, the U.S. government sent Andrew Jackson to recapture those who had escaped slavery. Jackson attacked and destroyed Seminole villages. He then went far beyond his orders. He seized two important Spanish towns and forced the governor to flee Florida. Jackson’s attack on Florida showed that the United States could take over Florida whenever it wanted. Since Spain could not protect Florida, it decided to give up the territory. In the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded, or gave up, Florida to the United States.

Spanish Colonies Win Independence - By 1810, opposition to Spanish rule ran strong in Spain’s American colonies. The American and French revolutions had inspired Latin Americans to want to control their own affairs. Revolutionary movements were growing in almost all of the Spanish colonies. Spain seemed unable to control the pressure for change in Latin America.

Mexico Breaks Away - Mexico’s struggle for independence began in 1810. In that year, Father Miguel Hidalgo (ee DAHL goh) organized an army of Native Americans that freed several Mexican provinces. However, in 1811, Hidalgo was captured and executed by troops loyal to Spain. Another revolution broke out in Mexico in 1820. This time, Spain was unable to end the fighting. In 1821, Spain agreed to Mexico’s independence. At first, Mexico was ruled by an emperor. Then, in 1823, the monarchy was overthrown. A new constitution, patterned after the United States Constitution, made Mexico a federal republic of nineteen states and four territories. Independence for South

Independence for South and Central America - South America, too, was affected by revolutionary change. Here, the best known leader of the struggle for independence from Spain was Simón Bolívar. Bolívar is often called the Liberator for his role in leading independence movements in the northern part of South America. In August 1819, he led an army on a daring march from Venezuela over the ice-capped Andes Mountains and into Colombia. There, he defeated the Spanish and became president of the independent Republic of Great Colombia. It included today’s nations of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama. Farther north, the people of Central America declared their independence from Spain in 1821. Two years later, they formed the United Provinces of Central America. It included today’s nations of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala. In 1822, Brazil announced its independence from Portugal. Soon after, the United States recognized the independence of Mexico and six other former colonies in Central and South America. By 1825, most parts of Latin America had thrown off European rule.

The Monroe Doctrine - The future of these new countries was soon clouded. Several European powers, including France and Russia, indicated that they might help Spain regain its colonies. This worried President James Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. It also worried the British. Both nations wanted to protect trade with Latin America. In 1823, Britain suggested that the two countries issue a joint statement. The statement would announce their determination to protect the freedom of the new nations of Latin America. Adams told President Monroe he thought the United States should take action alone. He believed a joint statement would make the United States look like Britain’s junior partner. Monroe agreed. In a message to Congress in December 1823, the President stated what is known as the Monroe Doctrine. The United States would not allow European nations to create American colonies or interfere with the free nations of Latin America. The United States would consider any attempt to do so “dangerous to our peace and safety.” At the time, the United States was not strong enough to block European action. Only the British navy could do that. As U.S. power grew, however, the Monroe Doctrine boosted the influence of the United States in the region.

Relations With Canada - Canada remained a British colony after the American Revolution. In 1791, the country was divided into two parts. Upper Canada was mainly English, and Lower Canada was mainly French. In 1837, there were rebellions against British rule in both parts of Canada. Although the British put down the rebellions, they learned a lesson. They could no longer deny rights to Canadians. Britain would have to give Canadians more powers of self-government—the right of people to rule themselves independently. The Act of Union of 1841 was a major step in that direction. It merged Canada’s two parts into a single unit governed by a Canadian legislature. Britain, however, still had ultimate control. Canada and the United States had their own disagreements. Tensions were particularly high when the United States unsuccessfully tried to invade Canada during the War of 1812. The situation slowly improved after the war. Between 1818 and 1846, the United States and Britain settled several border disputes regarding Canada. Eventually, the United States and Canada established excellent relations. Their relations remain strong to this day.

10.3 // The Age of Jackson

Adams and Jackson in Conflict - Andrew Jackson served two terms as President, from 1829 to 1837. His presidency marked the opening of a new and more democratic era in American political life. So great was his influence that the twenty-year period after he became President is often called the Age of Jackson. Andrew Jackson was a wealthy man by the time he became President. However, he began life with very little. Born in a log cabin on the border of North and South Carolina, he was an orphan by the age of 14. Jackson was ambitious, brave, and tough. He survived smallpox as a child and severe gunshot wounds as an adult. During a difficult march with his troops in 1812, one soldier described him as “tough as hickory.” Hickory trees are extremely strong, and their wood is very hard. The description fit Jackson so well that it stuck as a nickname. Jackson became known as Old Hickory. Jackson stood for the idea that ordinary people should participate in American political life. As a general and later as President, Andrew Jackson was deeply loved by millions of ordinary Americans. They loved him for his humble beginnings and his firm leadership.

The Election of 1824 - Jackson first ran for President in 1824. His opponents were John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford of Georgia. Jackson received the most electoral votes, but not a majority. According to the Constitution, the House of Representatives would have to decide the election. The choice was between Jackson and Adams, the two who had received the most votes. As Speaker of the House, Clay had great influence. He told his supporters to vote for Adams. The House then elected Adams on the first ballot. Jackson reacted with fury. He had won the most popular votes and the most electoral votes, but still had lost the election. When Adams appointed Clay secretary of state, Jackson’s supporters claimed the two men had made a “corrupt bargain.”

The Presidency of John Quincy Adams - Adams was burdened by the charges of a secret deal. He accomplished little, even though he had ambitious plans for the nation. He supported Clay’s American System and wanted the federal government to play a larger role in supporting the American economy. Adams proposed a national program to build roads and canals and a high tariff to protect industry. He also planned to set up a national university and an observatory for astronomers in Washington, D.C. However, he lacked the political skill to push his programs through Congress. Adams never won the trust of the American people. As a result, he served only one term. Despite his failures, Adams was an eloquent supporter of what he saw as America’s special place in the world. He stated his ideas in a Fourth of July speech in 1821. He said the United States had no designs on the territory of other nations: “Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or shall be unfurled, there will her [America’s] heart, . . . and her prayers be. But she goes not abroad in search of monsters to destroy. She is the well-wisher to the freedom and independence of all.”

A New Era in Politics - The election of 1824 disappointed Andrew Jackson and his followers. Still, that election began a new era in American politics. Back in the 1790s, states had begun extending suffrage—the right to vote. Many states dropped the requirement that men had to own property to be able to participate in voting. Voting requirements varied slightly from state to state. However, almost all adult white males now could vote and hold office. States also were changing how they choose presidential electors. Previously, state legislatures chose them. Now, that right went to the voters. In 1824, voters chose the presidential electors in 18 out of 24 states. Of course, suffrage was still restricted in the United States. Women could not participate in government. Nor could enslaved African Americans, male or female. In most states, even free African Americans could not vote.

Democracy in the Age of Jackson - Extending the right to vote was part of a larger spread of democratic ideas. Supporters of Andrew Jackson believed that ordinary people should vote in elections, hold public office, and do anything else they had the ability to do. Jackson’s supporters strongly opposed special privileges for those of high social status. Wealthy observers were sometimes dismayed by this spirit of equality. One visitor complained, “the rich and the poor, the educated and the ignorant, the polite and the vulgar, all . . . feed at the same table.” Jackson and his supporters did not trust government. They believed it often favored the rich and powerful. The Jacksonians also were suspicious of banks, which they believed favored the rich.

New Political Parties - The Age of Jackson brought back the two-party system that had briefly ended during the Era of Good Feelings. During the 1824 election, the Republican Party split. Supporters of Adams called themselves National Republicans. Jackson’s supporters used the name Democrats. In 1831, the National Republicans nominated Henry Clay to run against Jackson. Jackson won easily, with strength in all parts of the country. However, by 1836, the anti-Jackson forces had formed a new party, the Whigs. From then until 1852, the Democrats and the Whigs were the country’s two major political parties. The new parties adopted a new way of choosing their presidential candidates. Previously, a party’s members of Congress held a caucus—a meeting of members of a political party. These caucuses involved only a small group of people. Beginning in 1831, political parties started holding national nominating conventions—large meetings of party delegates to choose candidates for office. National conventions opened the nominating process to many more people and made it more democratic.

Jackson Becomes President - Three times as many people voted in the election of 1828 as had voted in 1824. Most of these new voters supported Jackson, who easily defeated Adams. The election revealed growing sectional and class divisions among American voters. Jackson did best in the West and the South, where planters and small farmers supported him. He also did well among small business people, artisans, and workers in cities and towns nationwide. Adams was most popular in his home region of New England.

Jackson’s Inauguration - Jackson's supporters called the election a victory for the “common man.” His inauguration in March 1829 showed what they meant. Thousands of ordinary working people jammed into Washington for the event. After the inauguration at the Capitol, Jackson rode a horse to the White House. A journalist described the scene: “As far as the eye could reach, the sidewalks of the Avenue were covered with people on foot . . . with . . . carriages and persons on horseback. . . . For a full half hour, I stood waiting for the stream to run by; but like a never failing fountain people continued pouring forth.” Twenty thousand people crowded in and around the White House for a reception in Jackson’s honor. They did not all behave well. Some broke furniture, spilled drinks, trampled rugs, and broke several thousand dollars worth of glassware and dishes. Officials finally lured the unruly crowd outside by moving the punch bowl onto the White House lawn. Jackson’s opponents were shocked. One member of the Supreme Court complained about the “reign of King Mob.” A Jackson supporter saw things more positively: “It was the People’s day, and the People’s President, and the People would rule.”

The Spoils of Victory - Jackson began his term by replacing some government officials with his supporters. Previous Presidents had done the same thing. In fact, during his two terms Jackson replaced only about 20 percent of federal officeholders. The difference was that Jackson openly defended what he was doing. He claimed putting new people into government jobs furthered democracy. One of his supporters put it more selfishly when he compared the process to a conquering army after a war, saying “to the victors belong the spoils [loot].” People quickly applied the term spoils system to the practice of rewarding government jobs to loyal supporters of the party that wins an election.

10.4 // Indian Removal

The Spoils of Victory - Jackson began his term by replacing some government officials with his supporters. Previous Presidents had done the same thing. In fact, during his two terms Jackson replaced only about 20 percent of federal officeholders. The difference was that Jackson openly defended what he was doing. He claimed putting new people into government jobs furthered democracy. One of his supporters put it more selfishly when he compared the process to a conquering army after a war, saying “to the victors belong the spoils [loot].” People quickly applied the term spoils system to the practice of rewarding government jobs to loyal supporters of the party that wins an election.